Systems of formal education

Education is the process by which people learn:

• Instruction refers to the facilitating of learning, usually by a teacher.
• Teaching refers to the actions of a real live instructor to impart learning to the student.
• Learning refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners with specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion.

[edit]Preschool education

Main article: Preschool education

[edit]Primary education

Main article: Primary education

Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts ofBucharest, around 1842.

Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first 5–7 years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 89% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.^[2] Under the Education for All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school.

[edit]Secondary education

Main article: Secondary education

In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs duringadolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g., university, vocational school for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools,colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australiaprimary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1-13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession.

The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in factories (for instance, the emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created and the curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students forwhite collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both the employer and the employee, because this improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educational attainment.

In Europe, the grammar school or academy existed from as early as the 16th century; public schools or fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations have an even longer history.

[edit]Higher education

Main article: Higher education

The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.

Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.

Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to asgraduate school). Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level orfoundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.

[edit]Adult education

Main article: Adult education

Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning and e-learning. A number of career specific courses such as veterinary assisting, medical billing and coding, real estate license, bookkeeping and many more are now available to students through the Internet.

[edit]Alternative education

Main article: Alternative education

Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, is a broad term that may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of education). This may include not only forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability), but also forms of education designed for a general audience and employing alternative educational philosophies and methods.

Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform and are rooted in various philosophies that are commonly fundamentally different from those of traditional compulsory education. While some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophicalorientations, others are more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with certain aspects of traditional education. These alternatives, which include charter schools, alternative schools, independent schools, and home-based learning vary widely, but often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between students and teachers, and a sense of community.

[edit]Indigenous education

Main article: Indigenous education

Increasingly, the inclusion of indigenous models of education (methods and content) as an alternative within the scope of formal andnon-formal education systems, has come to represent a significant factor contributing to the success of those members of indigenous communities who choose to access these systems, both as students/learners and as teachers/instructors.

[edit]Process

[edit]Curriculum

Main articles: Curriculum and List of academic disciplines

An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university, or via some other such method. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities andapplied sciences.^[3]

[edit]Learning modalities

There has been work on learning styles over the last two decades. Dunn and Dunn^[4] focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli^[5] recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner^[6] identified individual talents or aptitudes in his Multiple Intelligences theories. Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter^[7] focused on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator^[8] follows a similar but more simplified approach.

It is currently fashionable to divide education into different learning "modes". The learning modalities^[9] are probably the most common:

• Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
• Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
• Kinesthetic: learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.

Although it is claimed that, depending on their preferred learning modality, different teaching techniques have different levels of effectiveness,^[10] recent research has argued "there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice."^[11]

A consequence of this theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them.^[12] Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as VAK are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore restrict learning.^[13]

[edit]Teaching

Teachers need to understand a subject enough to convey its essence to students. While traditionally this has involved lecturing on the part of the teacher, new instructional strategies put the teacher more into the role of course designer, discussion facilitator, and coach and the student more into the role of active learner, discovering the subject of the course. In any case, the goal is to establish a sound knowledge base and skill set on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to different life experiences. Good teachers can translate information, good judgment, experience and wisdom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand, retain and pass to others. Studies from the US suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible.^[14] With the passing of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified.

[edit]Technology

Main article: Educational technology

Technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and mobile phones are used in developed countries both to complement established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as online education (a type of distance education). This gives students the opportunity to choose what they are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also means the increase of programming and blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills and understandings of students, including Multimedia, and provides new ways to engage students, such as Virtual learning environments. One such tool are virtual manipulatives, which are an "interactive, Web-based visual representation of a dynamic object that presents opportunities for constructing mathematical knowledge" (Moyer, Bolyard, & Spikell, 2002). In short, virtual manipulatives are dynamic visual/pictorial replicas of physical mathematical manipulatives, which have long been used to demonstrate and teach various mathematical concepts. Virtual manipulatives can be easily accessed on the Internet as stand-alone applets, allowing for easy access and use in a variety of educational settings. Emerging research into the effectiveness of virtual manipulatives as a teaching tool have yielded promising results, suggesting comparable, and in many cases superior overall concept-teaching effectiveness compared to standard teaching methods.^{[citation needed]} Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in education but also in the instruction of students. The use of technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention of students in the classroom. Technology is also being used in the assessment of students. One example is the Audience Response System (ARS), which allows immediate feedback tests and classroom discussions.^[15]

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a “diverse set of tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information.”^[16] These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. There is increasing interest in how computers and the Internet can improve education at all levels, in both formal and non-formal settings.^[17] Older ICT technologies, such as radio and television, have for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest, most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing countries.^[18] In addition to classroom application and growth of e-learning opportunities for knowledge attainment, educators involved in student affairs programming have recognized the increasing importance of computer usage with data generation for and about students. Motivation and retention counselors, along with faculty and administrators, can impact the potential academic success of students by provision of technology based experiences in the University setting.^[19]

The use of computers and the Internet is in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access. Usually, various technologies are used in combination rather than as the sole delivery mechanism. For example, the Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka.^[20] The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming.^[21] Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing technologies.^[22]

The term "computer-assisted learning" (CAL) has been increasingly used to describe the use of technology in teaching.

[edit]Educational theory

Main article: Education theory

Education theory is the theory of the purpose, application and interpretation of education and learning. Its history begins with classical Greek educationalists and sophists and includes, since the 18th century, pedagogy and andragogy. In the 20th century, "theory" has become an umbrella term for a variety of scholarly approaches to teaching, assessment and education law, most of which are informed by various academic fields, which can be seen in the below sections.

[edit]Economics

Main article: Economics of education

It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth.^[23]Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital".^[24] Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions^[25] and the role of cognitive skills.^[26]

At the individual level, there is a large literature, generally related back to the work of Jacob Mincer,^[27] on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital of the individual. This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling.^[28]

Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis famously argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production on the other.^[29]

Compere, Master of Ceremony, or Mc Professional Required

Professional conference speaker John Bell offers some essential tips on sourcing a quality MC, Toastmaster or Compere, (Compère) for your event:

Have you ever witnessed a quality orchestra performing without a conductor? It rarely happens and there are good reasons why that is the case.

Imagine the orchestra to be a motor vehicle - the engine may be a Rolls Royce but without the fine-tuning and skill of a top class mechanic it will eventually misfire badly and create the totally wrong impression to your audience or guests. How important is your event? If your answer is ‘very’, the tips that follow will help ensure you choose your Master of Ceremony / Compere wisely.


1. Why Choosing the Correct Master of Ceremony or Compere is so Necessary

By spending a little time now to source a Master of Ceremony or Compère, who has a proven ability to provide a quality service, and you can be virtually assured your event will be a great success, whilst freeing up your valuable time to actually get on and enjoy the day.

A good Master of Ceremony, with the knowledge, skill, and ability to manage proceedings, can turn an 'average' event into something that is seen by those attending as an amazing delight, and leave them with memories they will recall with affection for years to come.

2. Be on Your Guard for the Pretend Professional Compère or Master of Ceremony

It is important that you understand from the start that anyone can give himself or herself the title of ‘Master of Ceremony’ or ‘Compere’. So simply finding someone listed as such on a website, or in a business directory, is no guarantee as to his or her ability to facilitate proceedings at your event in a professional and efficient manner. Fear not – for help follows!

3.  Here’s How to Start Your Search

Using a computer search engine type the title Master of Ceremony or Compere or Compère and begin your quest. My search engine of choice provides over 700,000 possible hits for Master of Ceremony. This, of course, only partially helps you in your quest for the perfect manager for your event!

4. Narrowing Down the List of Possibles

You may already have noticed that there are thousands of ‘potentials’ on offer under the ‘Compere / Master of Ceremony’ umbrella and so you will need to do a little more.

Narrow your searches down further by describing the type of event you are to hold e.g. wedding, corporate event, award ceremony, formal dinner, etc.

Choosing a short list of potential candidates from the first two or three pages of a search engine listing seems, and is to some extent, a logical way to proceed. However, there are further issues that are worthy of your consideration:

5. Do I Need a Toastmaster, Compère, Master of Ceremonies, MC or Emcee?

Although all the terms listed above tend to refer to a person with some responsibility towards the general proceedings at an event, there are some subtle variations in role you should consider.

The term Toastmaster is often associated with Toastmaster International, a not-for-profit educational organisation with regional clubs now situated worldwide. The main purpose of the club is to help members improve their public speaking. You can also find listings under the National Association of Toastmasters. These are the officials often seen at larger weddings, formal dinners and the like and are usually dressed in bright red coats and act as the protocol officer. They are often required to bring those at the event ‘to order’ and to provide the necessary formal introductions etc.

A Compere (Compère) is normally engaged with the specific task of providing links and introductions for speakers or entertainers on stage, radio, television show, conference, convention and seminar. Comperes generally keep the event on track and heading in the right direction. During links, a good Compère will often use humour and witty observations to entertain and inform the audience. They also have a very special ability of being able to quickly build rapport with an audience.

The Master of Ceremonies has additional responsibilities to that of the compare. They are responsible for ensuring that the whole event runs smoothly. This means a much greater ‘hands on’ and carefully prepared approach to the proceedings. MC is nothing more than an abbreviation of Master of Ceremony and is sometimes used with the spelling Emcee.

The MC has a difficult role in that, despite their bright red uniform, they are expected to regularly fade into the background until their skills are further required. Being successful as an MC requires flexibility, a friendly disposition, temperate habits, and ability to ad lib when necessary.

6. Do I approach a Master of Ceremony direct or via an Agent or Bureau?

If you search the Internet you will discover that Speaker Agents and Bureaus represent the majority of the best, Comperes and Masters of Ceremonies working within the professional circuit.

Generally, agents are only interested in someone who is already established as a top MC or event Compere. They proactively promote the individual, putting their name forward to conference, convention, large wedding organisers and the like. They charge a fee to the MC for this service, usually based on a percentage of the Compere’s fee for the occasion. For effective 'numbers' reasons, the choice of MC, Toastmaster etc, found through an agent, can be somewhat limiting. It is always wise to enquiry with more than one agent.

Those bureaus offering the services of a Master of Ceremony tend to be dedicated to providing wedding, conference and event organisers with a large selection of professional Comperes, MCs, Toastmasters etc from which to choose. Too much choice can be the biggest disadvantage when using a bureau.

A Master of Ceremony or Event Compere, good or bad, experienced or amateur, will also often represent their own interests, and so it may be useful if I now provide a few tips on how to identify an established, professional MC, Compère or Toastmaster, of quality from the large pool of the Johnny-come-lately brigade you will find out there.

7.  How Do I Locate Quality?

Using search engines, top position for a ‘Master of Ceremony or Compere’ usually fluctuates from one day to the next, so compose a short-list of names from the first two or three pages, and you are ready to begin you quest for quality.

By way of caution, it is worth considering that sponsored links for Compère and Masters of Ceremonies are there because someone is prepared to pay, sometimes-large amounts, to jump to the front of the queue of other MC’s etc.  Whereas this is an admirable indication that they are prepared to invest in advertising, it does not necessarily follow that you will receive the best value for your money. Here is an easy way to narrow down your short list:

8. Establish Experience

Using your computer, retype that which you originally searched for, into the search engine, and add one of the names you have recorded in your short list e.g. Master of Ceremonies or Compere / Compère plus His or Her Name.

By doing so you can better determine whether that particular MC, Toastmaster etc has the expertise you require.  You will also have an indication as whether or not an agent or bureau represents them.

9. Research Testimonials

Experience has shown that any Compere or MC, worthy of consideration, will have a selection of testimonials from previous clients available for you to view on his or her website. Ensure companies and individuals are named. Descriptions such as ' The bride’s father said, or a senior manager at a large well-known company said....', are of little to no value, and should start alarm bells ringing. Look for named sources from respected individuals of quality companies. Such people are usually very selective about whom they are prepared to recommend, as their own reputation could be on the line.

10. Can They Do The Job?

This may sound obvious, but the most important traits required by a Master of Ceremonies is to have a masterly understanding of the management and mechanics of an event, with an advanced ability to communicate effectively.

It is worth noting that membership to some Emcee, Master of Ceremonies and similar organisations is usually open to all people aged 18 and above, who may have little more than a desire to improve their communications skills and learn the basics of public speaking.

The skills provided by a top MC or Compère are carefully structured and based upon a science that is studied by few, practised by even fewer, and mastered by even less.

Ensure your choice of Master of Ceremonies has proven credentials. The best associations are very selective about who is entitled to wear their ‘Badge of Office’. With a red coated Toastmaster this is seen in the medallion worn, with a ribbon, hung around the neck.

For those top Compares, Emcee etc who prefer not to be associated with such organisations, and there are many, one great way of checking their credentials is by establishing whether they have work that has been published, through a reputable source, on public speaking skills, professional Compere techniques etc. Use the method described in Tip 8 above to obtain a quick and easy result to your research.

Ideally, watch videos of the MC or Compere / Compère performing, and listen to the audience reaction to determine whether he or she has established a noticeable rapport with the audience. Study the footage carefully to establish if the style of delivery displayed by the MC, is that which you require for your event. Personal preference is established through a subjective test! You pay the piper therefore you can call the tune.

11. Cost Issues

Ideally you should have some idea of a financial budget, allocated to hire a MC or Compere, before commencing your search. The costs in hiring a Master of Ceremonies can vary dramatically and are dependent on the location of venue, numbers of delegates attending, the duration of the event and the quality and popularity of the Toastmaster or Emcce. My advice is this - if your event is worth holding, it is worth investing in an experienced and proven Master of Ceremonies.

You should be seeking a person who has presence, poise and a professional ability to take charge when and where it is necessary. Sometimes paying a relatively little bit more speaker fee often produces an immensely worthwhile investment that will give you greater peace of mind and the opportunity to actually sit back and enjoy the event!

Deciding whether you deal with the MC direct, or through an agent or bureau is normally purely a matter of choice. In theory the fees quoted from an agent, bureau or direct with the Compère should, be more or less the same.

If, during your search for the ideal person, you are interested in hiring a celebrity Compere or Master of Ceremony you are unlikely to find any direct contact details and your only line of enquiry will need to be through an agent or bureau specialising in the provision of such artistes.

Agents that actively promote a Master of Ceremonies or Compère have a good idea of the fee normally required to secure that person’s services and will share that figure with you when you make your initial enquiry. It is always wise to obtain an all-in-fee from an agent.

A bureau's commission is normally obtained direct from the Compere. This commission can vary but normally falls between 15% and 30%. If they do not have a particular MC or Toastmaster on their books, they are usually happy to trace them and make any necessary arrangements on your behalf.

There are few of the top Masters of Ceremony or Emcee who work with only one agent or bureau. If there is no mention of exclusivity on promotional material or a website you can assume there is not. This, in effect means, that if you come across a MC or Compere of your choice, and he or she supplies contact details, this is an implied permission for you to contact him or her direct and independently negotiate a fee. Your aim should be to obtain the best value for your money with a Compère or MC that is the best suited to your event and most professional speakers are prepared to negotiate their fee.

12.  The Information Normally Required by a Master of Ceremonies

If you are contacting an MC or Compere, and you have researched him or her carefully, as advised, you can be confident in knowing you are speaking with the right person to present at your event. The Master of Ceremony should be a perfect fit in the large jigsaw puzzle that makes up an event. By way of example - a formal red coated Emcee, indicating in promotional material, that they prefer, or tend to work locally, may not be the ideal person to act as Compere / Compère and to appear on stage during the worldwide launch of your new product.

Should you decide on taking the agent or bureau route in your search, the first thing you will need to make perfectly clear, for the reasons described in Tip 8 above, is that you are seeking a Compere or a Master of Ceremony for a specific type of event.

Next supply the date of the event. A top MC or Compère are usually very popular and you can save yourself a lot of time, and disappointment, by establishing their availability early in the proceedings. It is perfectly acceptable to ask if you can provisionally hold a particular Emcee or Compere for a few days until a final decision is reached.

An efficient, professional quality, MC for a wedding, will have a whole host of questions they will want to ask you to help them to prepare for your event. If they don’t ask lots of questions you may not have the right person for the job!

The best event organisers will always provide a thorough description of the objectives and the purpose of an event or conference. They will also provide venue, size, type of audience, and the duration of the talks etc that will be provided by other guest speakers.

Professional Comperes link the presentations given by each of the speakers. They will often provide skilful comment on content from previous speakers and highlight relevancy to the next speaker. Proceeding should run smoothly with the delivery of effective ‘joins’ between talks, etc. The MC’s role is to make others at the event into the stars of the show.

The best event Master of Ceremony or Compère will skilfully use humour, and have the ability to adlib where and when required. Laughter makes uncomfortable situations more comfortable. It allows individuals at the event to laugh no matter how grim living may be away from the event.

Laughter is such a nice feeling people, will pay money to others to make them laugh. It is that powerful! It is cathartic; it encourages an individual to purge their problems and painful emotions through the joy of laughter. Great Masters of Ceremony often make skilful stand-up comedians and may, showing admirable versatility, and may occasionally provide, professional quality after-dinner speeches at other events.

They are also skilled at time keeping and will ensure that speakers at the event don’t overrun their allotted time by too much. A minute or two is acceptable whereas twenty is not!

Following the introduction of an invited speaker, the MC or Compere will lead the applause of welcome, and will initiate an appropriate appreciation at the conclusion of the speech.

Which brings me to a timely end. I wish you every success in your search for the perfect Master of Ceremony, MC, Toastmaster, Emcee or Compere / Compère, and can reassure you, that by following the advice I have provided, you will have the opportunity sit back on the day and enjoy the justifiable rewards obtained through your endeavours.